作品相关 汉朝没有马鞍马镫吗？

转贴自http://www.cqzg.cn春秋战国全球中文网2004-07-07

    汉代是中国古代历史的第一个黄金时期，其初步奠定了中国后世2000年的大致疆域，从此使“天下一统”的观念深入汉民族的内心深处，并且在经济、政治、文化上对周边地区甚至远至中西亚都产生了巨大影响，第一次使中国作为一个稳固强大的帝国登上世界历史的一级竞争舞台。汉朝之所以能够取得如此辉煌的成就，原因之一就在于其强有力的军事力量，这一力量的最重要来源就是它能征善战的骑兵部队。而对于骑兵来讲非常重要的马具，其最关键的马鞍和马镫在两汉时代、尤其是西汉是否存在的问题也就成为了一个引人注目的事情。

    对于这一问题，由于长期以来始终没有在考古中发现西汉马鞍和两汉马镫的实物和雕塑、绘画等方面的证据，传统观点是这样认为的：“西汉时，马鞍、马镫仍未出现，多少影响了骑兵的战斗力”⑴、“……（西汉）但马镫仍未出现，这在很大程度上影响了骑兵的战斗力。”⑵而需要强调的是，这里及本文所说的“马鞍”并非指其广义上所含概的所有用于隔开人体和马背的物体，而是指其狭义，即两端上翘的“高桥马鞍”。那么事实真的是这样吗？这里就要对此进行一下粗浅的讨论。

    马鞍和马镫是全套马具中继马嚼和缰绳之后最重要的发明。在没有鞍镫的时代，人们需要骑跨于裸马的背上，仅靠抓住缰绳或马鬃并用腿夹紧马腹使自己在马匹飞驰的时候不致摔落。但这种方式是很不可靠的，首先是长时间骑马容易疲劳，同时在奔跑的马背上也难以有效地使用弓箭，而在近战中，骑手无法随心所欲地使用刀剑和长矛，劈砍或刺杀落空、双方兵刃的撞击等都随时会令骑手从马上滑下。因此这一时期骑兵除速度占优外，其战斗力是远不如脚踏实地的步兵的，所以在骑兵到达目的地后，往往下马作为步兵投入战场，亚历山大时代的马其顿骑兵就是如此。

    第一个革新（这只是一般性的看法，但其实际的发明顺序不一定是这样）是高桥马鞍的出现，马鞍两端从平坦转为高翘，限制了骑手身体的前后滑动趋势，提供了纵向的稳定性。第二个则是马镫的使用，它通过固定双脚提供横向稳定性，同时在马鞍的协助下将人和马结为一个整体，使骑兵利用马匹的速度进行正面冲击成为可能。西方学者这样评论进入欧洲的匈奴人携带的新装备：“马鞍是人与马完全结合在一起的关键。匈奴人独特的马鞍引起了罗马人的惊奇。他们的马鞍不像罗马人的那样由裹住马肚子的皮革制成，匈奴人的马鞍的特别之处在于它有一个两头高的木制托架。这样不论马怎么跑，骑士们都能稳稳地坐在马背上。……相反，罗马人笨拙的骑术使不少骑手经常在战斗中失去平衡，而从马上掉下来，这通常很危险，有时甚至是致命的。……除了马鞍，匈奴人还从亚洲带来了一项在当时具有革命性的创新：欧洲人从未见过的马镫。为了防止腿在长距离的骑马后会疲劳，人们在马鞍上系上了绷带、皮带或者用一种亚麻织成的腿带。这样，脚就有了可踏的地方。……尽管当时这种马镫还不完善，但它给骑手们一种安全感，同时也能让他们在马上站起来向各个方向转身。由于有了木马鞍和马镫，匈奴骑手们能在骑马的过程中朝每个方向射箭。”⑶鞍镫的引进，在欧洲来讲是一件大事，正是它使骑兵取代步兵成为中世纪战争的主力，“一旦马镫成为8世纪的法兰克人通用之物，马匹不仅能用于迅速集中力量，并且也能用来作战了。速度可以转化为突击。”⑷“马镫使中世纪穿戴沉重的铠甲的封建骑士得以产生。”⑸由此可见其重要的程度。

    既然马鞍和马镫是以骑兵为主力的作战方式产生的前提，从中国古代骑兵运用的情况中就大致可以发现一些端倪了。可以认为，在中国至迟到秦代，马鞍和马镫仍未产生。作出这一判断不仅是由于始皇陵兵马俑中具有表现细致的马具，却惟独没有高桥马鞍与马镫（图1），而且还因为在兵马俑战阵的布局上，骑兵数量相对很少，且被布置在远离主阵的侧面角落里，这说明在秦代以前，骑兵的作用只是侦察、侧翼包抄、骚扰遮断、偷袭和追击，并不能成为作战主力，更不用提独立承担整个战役了。

    能够为此提供佐证的是孙膑对骑兵作战的叙述：“用骑有十利：一曰迎敌始至；二曰乘虚背敌；三曰追散击乱；四曰迎敌击后；五曰遮其粮食，绝其军道；六曰败其关津，发其桥梁；七曰掩其不备，卒击其未振旅；八曰攻其懈怠，出其不意；九曰烧其积蓄，虚其市里；十曰掠其田野，系累其子弟。此十者，骑战之利也。”⑹可见这一时期骑兵担任的只是辅助任务，拥有鞍镫的可能性不大。

    那么历史记载中汉朝骑兵的作战情况又是如何呢？

    文帝时，“十四年冬匈奴谋入边为寇，攻朝那塞，杀北地都尉卬。上乃遣三将军军陇西、北地、上郡，中尉周舍为卫将军，郎中令张武为车骑将军，军渭北，车千乘，骑卒十万。……于是以东阳侯张相如为大将军，威侯赤为内使，栾布为将军，击匈奴。匈奴遁走。”⑺可以看出，此时汉军的骑兵在单场战役中的参战规模和所占兵力比例明显增大，已经不再仅仅担任辅助作用了。

    自武帝以后，骑兵的地位进一步上升：“其明年，元朔之五年春，汉令车骑将军卫青将三万骑，出高阙。”⑻“右贤王以为汉兵不能至，饮酒醉。汉兵出塞六七百里，夜围右贤王。”⑼“其明年春汉复遣大将军卫青将六将军，兵十余万骑，乃再出定襄数百里击匈奴。”⑽“其明年春，汉使骠骑将军去病将万骑出陇西，过焉支山千余里，击匈奴，得胡首虏万八千余级，破得休屠王祭天金人。其夏，骠骑将军复与合骑侯数万骑出陇西、北地二千余里，击匈奴，过屠延，攻祁连山，得胡首虏三万余人，裨小王以下七十余人。”⑾“元狩四年春，上令大将军青、骠骑将军去病出将各五万骑，步兵转者踵军数十万，而敢力战深入之士皆属骠骑。”⑿“秋，蝗。遣浚稽赵破奴二万骑出朔方击匈奴，不还。”⒀“夏五月，贰师将军三万骑出酒泉，与右贤王战与天山，斩首虏万余级。”⒁“四年春正月，朝诸侯王于甘泉宫。发天下七科谪及勇敢士，遣贰师将军李广利将六万骑、步兵七万人出朔方，因杼将军公孙敖万骑、步兵三万人出雁门，游击将军韩说步兵三万人出五原，强弩都尉路博德步兵万余人与贰师会。”⒂“冬，辽东乌桓反，以中郎将范明友为度辽将军，将北边七郡，郡二千骑击之。”⒃在这些战例中，可以看到两个趋势。一是骑兵在总兵力中所占份额不断增大，随着车兵的逐渐退出战场，骑步两兵种在数量上的比率关系从十万比数十万，上升到七万比十四万，骑兵明显已经取代步兵而成为战斗主力，相反步兵则下降到“踵军”即跟随在后助战的地位，致于只由骑兵独立参加的战役更是屡见不鲜。二是往往一次战役就长驱奔袭数百里乃至一两千里进行会战，长时间骑马带来的疲劳问题愈发突出，如果骑手不能以充沛的体力投入战斗，取得河西、漠北等大规模决战的胜利是不可能的。在没有鞍镫的情况下，这样的战役几乎无法想象。

    另一方面，从具体的战斗方式上看，早在楚汉战争时期，“汉军围之数重，项王谓其骑曰：‘吾为公取彼一将。’令四面骑驰下，期山东为三处。于是项王大呼驰下，汉军皆披靡，遂斩汉一将。……与其骑会为三处汉军不知项王所在，乃分军为三，复围之。项王乃驰，复斩汉一都尉，杀数十百人，复聚其骑亡其两骑耳，乃谓其骑曰：‘何如？’骑皆伏曰：‘如大王言。’”⒄能够采用此种在敌阵之中冲突的战斗方式，说明骑者在马上已经具备了相当的稳性，否则极易摔下。

    西汉时期，弓箭是匈奴和汉军骑兵最重要的作战武器，它的使用受到马具的严重制约。没有马鞍的时候，在奔马上射箭极为困难，因为骑手一边要双腿使劲夹住马腹并保持平衡，一边还要双臂用力拉开弓并尽量使射出的箭命中目标，即便是自幼生活在马背上的游牧民族，这一作战方式也是非常低效且难于实行的，这时候最好的办法是停住马射箭或干脆下马发射；当高桥马鞍投入应用后，它给予骑手一个纵向的稳定作用，使其可以在飞驰时向前方射箭，但由于横向上无有效支撑，朝左右方向甚至转身向后射箭时仍然容易跌落，是很危险的，前面引用西方学者的评价中就可看出这一点。但是，在史料中却有这样的记载：“匈奴追者骑数百追之，广行取胡儿弓，射杀追骑，以故得脱。”⒅这种转身后射的情况，说明此时应已有马鞍和马镫的使用。况且在汉代的史料中，除个别故意表示轻蔑汉军者外，从未见到有关匈奴下马作战的记录，假如没有鞍镫的应用，这不能不说是个非常奇怪的现象。

    古代弓箭的使用还受到天气影响，弓弦如果被雨水浇湿，作用将会大减，而假若遇上严寒天气，威力也会严重下降。宋人就曾记载：“契丹将耶律逊宁号于越者，以数万骑入寇瀛州。都部署刘廷让与战于君子馆，会天大寒，我师不能彀弓矢，敌围廷让数重。”⒆而在著名的白登之围中，“于是汉悉兵，多步兵，三十二万，北逐之。高帝先至平城，步兵未尽到，冒顿纵精兵四十万围高帝于白登。”⒇“会天寒，士卒堕指者二三，遂至平城。匈奴围我平城，七日而后罢去。”(21)在如此寒冷的境况下，匈奴和汉军的弓箭很难说还会保持威力，双方一旦接阵就会爆发激烈的白刃战。在短兵相接的战斗中，没有鞍镫的骑兵战斗力不可能赶得上步兵，如果匈奴下马迎击，也不会是历来擅长步战的汉军的对手，要阻止汉军突围便是件困难的事情，那么长达七天的轻松围困就变得难以解释了。更何况此战匈奴的兵力虽据《史记》所称有四十万，却很可能是个虚数，因为在《史记》中原本就提到冒顿时期的匈奴有“控弦之士三十余万”(22)，扣除留守草原的兵力，又何来如此之多的人马？再说纵使“四十万”之数是准确的，由于游牧民族参加出征的人数中经常要包括大量妇女、老人、儿童等非战斗人员，其真正的作战兵力也远不会有那么多，加上前面所述近战中的质量劣势，应付起汉军的突围来更加捉襟见肘了。既然如此，不惧戎马的刘邦为什么还迟迟不敢突围呢？对此只能有一种解释，就是当时的匈奴骑兵已经装备了马鞍和马镫，对步兵具有强大的近战优势和冲击力，冒险突围只会导致全军覆没。还有一个有趣的现象，就是在两汉史料中出现了“突骑”这一叫法：“若夫平原易地，轻车突骑，则匈奴之众易桡乱也”(23)“会上谷太守耿况、渔阳太守彭宠各遣其将吴汉、寇恂等将突骑来助击王郎”(24)“贼追急，短兵接，光武自投高岸，遇突骑王丰，下马授光武，光武抚其肩而上，顾笑谓耿弇曰：‘几为虏嗤。’”(25)对于《汉书》中“突骑”一词的含义，颜师古注为：“突骑，其言骁锐可用冲突敌人也。”(26)颜师古是唐人，其注释未必就能代表汉代“突骑”的真正意义，那么在汉代史料记载中它的作用又是什么呢？“光武北击群贼，（吴）汉常将突骑五千为军锋，数先登陷陈。”(27)“刘永将周建别招聚收集得十余万人，救广乐。汉将轻骑迎与之战，不利，堕马伤膝，还营，建等遂连兵入城。”(28)可见至少在东汉初年，骑兵已经能够担当站在头排正面冲锋、“先登陷阵”的任务了，利用骑兵的冲击力冲垮敌阵、步兵随后跟进决定胜负的作战方式已经确立。如果说在同匈奴的近战中仅仅是用骑兵对抗骑兵，双方彼此处境相同，对骑手稳性的要求不一定很高的话，那么在此要面对的则是以步兵为主力的敌军，若想正面冲击其阵，只有同时装备了马鞍和马镫才有可能办到。

    尽管有这么多的文献证据证明汉代鞍镫的存在，缺乏考古方面的实证却是不争的事实。在中国所发现的最早表现高桥马鞍的文物是东汉末年作品，如雷台汉墓出土的骑俑（图2）和鞍马彩绘木雕；而最早具备马镫的雕塑作品是长沙西晋永宁二年墓中的骑马乐俑（图3），因这批俑中有马镫者只是在马身左侧鞍下有一个三角型镫具，仅及小腿一半高，而右侧则没有，且骑者的脚也未踏于其中，所以被认为是马镫的雏形，即用于上马的器具；致于最早的实物双马镫，则是辽宁北票十六时期北燕冯素弗墓的鎏金铜裹木质马镫（图4）。但迄今为止，对于西汉和东汉初年的高桥马鞍及两汉马镫，却始终没有发现其实物和能够证明它们存在的艺术作品。

    未发现不等于没有。既然通过史书可以推测出它们的存在，就应该从“为什么这些东西没有出现”的方面去思考。

    鞍镫产生于东亚是肯定的，但它们的发明是否来自中原汉地呢？从需求促成发明的角度上讲，很难想象一个以稼穑为生的农耕民族会比终年骑在马背上的游牧民族对此有更急切的需求。从而可以推断，最早发明鞍镫的荣誉更应该属于匈奴等北方民族。这样，寻找其实物证据为何不存的方向就应转向匈奴。

    如前面所说，公元4世纪入侵欧洲的匈奴人使用木制的马鞍，而他们所使用的原始马镫也只不过是绷带、皮带或者用一种亚麻织成的腿带。由于无论是原来居住还是西迁途中经过的地域，多半是稀树草原和沙漠，缺乏树木，这必定会限制制作高桥马鞍的数量而仅供贵族和作战士兵使用；同时在需要将供应不足的木材用于制造马鞍和弓的情况下，也不大可能再改进制造木质马镫，致于主要用于打造武器的金属则更加缺乏，用其制造马镫更加不可能。因此4世纪时的软式原始马镫应与两汉时代的匈奴马镫无大差别。反观冯素弗墓的双马镫，已经是很成型的东西，自然不会是后世马镫的祖先。那么在此之前，必定经历过一个相当长阶段的原始状态。因为西方记载中匈奴的“绷带”状软式马镫已具备了后世马镫固定双脚的功能，因而与长沙西晋墓骑俑仅用于上马的单镫相比，它更可能是真正意义上的马镫的祖先，而上马用的镫具只不过是为真正的马镫提供了外型上改进的榜样而已，因双镫也有帮助上马的功能，所以在它改进之后单镫就被取代了。说到这里，一看便知，原始纯木质马鞍和用皮革、麻纤维制作的马镫（或者说只是一种“绑带”而已），甚至是后来使用木制而无金属外皮的马镫，都是极易腐朽而难于保存至今的，即使能够保留下来，那些外表仅仅是一条麻布、皮带的物品，要准确判断它们的用途也是难上加难。这就是为什么始终没有发现汉代马鞍尤其是马镫的原因。

    除去这些，还有一些国外考古发现和国内存在争议的艺术作品。如上世纪初蒙古匈奴墓地的发掘，“特别值得注意的是诺音乌拉山脉一座陵墓墓室中的随葬品，这座陵墓是1912年一位蒙古采金工程师偶然发现的，1924年对它进行了科学性发掘。……幸运的是发现了一只中国漆杯，上有两段铭文，因此得以确定六号墓的年代：公元一世纪初左右。事实上，这是匈奴单于乌珠留的墓。……主要的运输工具是备鞍的马匹。马勒、马嚼和马鞍类似于斯基泰时代阿尔泰地区的同类物件。马鞍通常由填以毛料的两块皮垫构成，不过少数马鞍配有一个木框，前后装有鞍头，并且配备马镫。配有马镫的马鞍象征了一大进步。”(29)乌珠留单于死于东汉初年，如果能够证实这真是乌珠留的墓，无疑是给汉代鞍镫的存在增加了一个有力的证据。另外据称大英博物馆藏有一个贵霜（公元1~5世纪）铜壶，壶壁浮雕花纹上有两个手持长矛的骑马骑士，马上均有绳索状脚镫。(30)而云南石寨山发现的处于西汉时期的古滇文化青铜战争场面贮贝器的顶部，也有一个骑无鞍马者的鎏金塑像，其双脚拇趾套在鞍前垂下的绳圈中，起到马镫的作用（图5），虽然其形制决定了只能用于跣足民族，但它的存在至少说明马镫的早期形态应近乎于此，而不是由上马用具发展而来，同时也表明了高桥马鞍的发明不一定早于马镫。西汉霍去病墓前的石雕群中，有一头横卧的石牛，在其背部即有线刻的鞍镫，是欧亚大陆能见到的最早骑镫，但其制成年代受到怀疑，原因是有人认为其上骑镫系后人所刻。而证据确凿的反映西汉马鞍和两汉马镫的文艺作品一直都没能找到。鞍镫的实物不易保存是客观现实，可为何汉代的雕塑、绘画等艺术作品中也没有它们的影子？这个问题比较令人费解，但至少有一种解释可以初步说明其缘由，那就是审美方面的原因。在历史传统中，一件新物品投入应用后，经常可能经过相当长的时间才在美学上被人们——尤其是艺术工匠——所接受，在此之前制作的很多作品都仍然会保留它出现前的样子，即艺术创作上的“惯性”。如果仔细观察的话，中国晋代以后也不乏表现没有鞍镫或有鞍无镫之骑手和马匹的作品。比如图6中的持槊骑兵和图7的披铠骑士，皆无鞍镫的痕迹，而使用长槊的作战方式与加剧骑手不稳定性的重甲骑兵的产生，都是以鞍镫的使用为基础的。再如在唐朝，马镫的使用已经很普遍了，“昭陵六骏”身上的镫具就清楚地说明了这一点（图8），但图9中的骑马队伍却都未装备马镫，如果说是平民百姓缺乏财力倒还罢了（其实一副马镫也不见得是什么很贵的东西），而这里却是堂堂王家的盛装出行，且其所行路程也不会很短，否则规模如此浩大、擎着众多旌旗就没有意义了，那为什么所有的人还都让双脚空垂在那里受累呢？这只能说明绘制这幅画的人无视马镫的存在，也许他是感觉不美观，或是有其他什么原因，但终归是未将其画上去。

    另外值得注意的是，不仅中国，在西方中世纪以后的美术作品中，也往往出现忽视马鞍和马镫的倾向，如图10中的匈奴王阿提拉，既无马鞍又无马镫。众所周知，正是匈奴人的三棱椎箭、高桥马鞍和原始马镫打败了罗马人的大盾、投枪和短剑。此种“疏忽”如果不是故意的，很难说得通。这种东西方艺术创作中共有的“惯性”对鞍镫进入艺术作品起到了相当大的阻碍和迟滞作用。

    通过对以上文献和考古文物的资料观察，可以看出，尽管至今为止尚没有实物和艺术作品来证明它们的存在，高桥马鞍和马镫这两项对骑兵来讲至关重要的发明，在两汉时代仍然应该是已经投入应用的。正是它们使匈奴成为草原霸主，也正是它们推动了汉帝国在政治、军事上的大幅度扩张，为将中国历史上第一个稳固帝国的政治和文化影响扩散到北亚和中亚奠定了基础。相信随着汉代考古的进一步发展，两汉时期的马鞍和马镫最终会揭开它们朦胧的面纱。

补充最新考古成果,2000年灞河汉代水上遗址出土铜马镫.其时代应在西汉末到东汉前期。

此话我发到书评区,一定要置顶

我认为马鞍应该出现在西汉初年甚至于秦末。（这方面我没有做过考察，也没有翻阅相关的史书，纯粹臆想推测。）在战争史上，每一次大规模的战争都会意味着某种兵器或者某种军事理论的变革。马鞍、马镫的出现应该也不例外。在春秋时期的西北的戎等匈奴的前身游牧民族，虽然也多次骚扰边境，但是始终形成不了根本性的威胁力量，可能就是因为没有马鞍、马镫的存在，最多就是乘马偷袭平民。但是战斗力绝对敌不过秦、赵等的军队，但是由于其如蚊蝇也让秦赵甚至燕国都不堪骚扰筑起长城，防范其偷袭，如发现其偷袭，则可集中力量一举击破之。而后来的赵武灵王胡服骑射，其实最主要的就是按照胡人的方法抢掠胡人以达到驱逐胡人的目的。但是胡人这时候没有马鞍马镫，对此时的各个诸国形成不了战术上的优势。而到了秦末，马鞍出现了，并出现了单侧马镫，这样胡人就明显有了骑射的对步兵的明显优势，在战术层面已经超过了秦汉兵的战斗力，从而有了白马之围，而这时候的胡人的战斗力虽然由于马鞍的出现有了一定的突破，但是缺少了马镫，还不足以进行长途奔袭的能力。到了西汉汉武时期，应该出现了马镫。我个人认为两侧马镫应该是由汉人发明的，这也就很好解释了汉武时期骑兵的突出作用，并且让本来不善骑射的农耕之兵与牧马的胡人在骑兵上一较高下，而且是卫青霍去病时代产物，也只有这个时候，汉军的将领一直在研究对付匈奴骑射的办法，一直在探索和学习，而马镫的一经出现就立刻改变了这种战术的力量的平衡，从而让汉军对匈奴立刻形成了战术优势，而在卫霍的军事才能下让匈奴吃了不少苦头。但匈奴也不笨，立刻就学会了，这样李广利以及以后汉匈之间的拉锯式战争，就体现了这一点。之后的匈奴之所以远遁是因为汉帝国的势力过于强大，强大到匈奴在这场战争中消耗不起。

趾蹬和马镫似乎不同吧？灞河汉代水上遗址出土铜马镫似乎是趾镫

现有得考古证据表明，马蹬在三国时期肯定是普及了。有考古实物为证。东汉末年肯定是有了。至于再往前，没有实物无法证实。就不便叙述了。

楼上,证据呢?我只知道北燕冯素弗墓的鎏金铜裹木质马镫是最早的.

最早的马镫出现与公元前500年的印度。。

维基百科说的

[ 本帖最后由 fgfgvb 于 2008-3-15 10:41 PM 编辑 ]

Stirrup
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Stirrups)


Haniwa horse statuette, complete with saddle and stirrups, 6th century, Kofun period, Japan.

A modern working stirrup on an endurance riding saddleFor the bone, see stapes. For other uses of the word stirrup, see Stirrup (disambiguation).
The stirrup is a ring with a flat bottom fixed on a leather strap, usually hung from each side of a saddle by an adjustable strap to create a footrest for a person using a riding animal (usually a horse or other equine, such as a mule), used as a support for the foot of a rider when seated in the saddle and as an aid in mounting. It greatly increases the rider's ability to stay in the saddle and control the mount, increasing the animal's usefulness in communication, transportation and warfare. It is considered one of the basic tools used to create and spread modern civilization. Some argue it is as important as the wheel or printing press.

The English word "stirrup" stems from Old English stirap, stigrap, or Middle English stirop, styrope,[1] i.e. a mounting or climbing-rope.

Contents
1History
1.1The Great Stirrup Controversy
2Stirrup leathers
3Adjustment and uses of stirrups
4Weaknesses in design
4.1Riding boots
5Modern Stirrups
5.1English-style stirrups
5.2Western-style stirrups
6Fitting the Stirrup
7Placement of the Stirrup on the Foot
8Footnotes
9Additional sources



[edit]History


Vendel Age stirrup from Uppland, SwedenThe stirrup, which gave greater stability to a rider, has been described as one of the most significant inventions in the history of warfare, prior to gunpowder. As a tool allowing expanded use of horses in warfare, the stirrup is often called the third revolutionary step in equipment, after the chariot and the saddle. The basic tactics of mounted warfare were significantly altered by the stirrup. A rider supported by stirrups was less likely to fall off while fighting, and could deliver a blow with a weapon that more fully employed the weight and momentum of horse and rider.

The invention of the stirrup occurred relatively late in history, considering the fact that horses were domesticated in approximately 4500 BC, and the earliest forms of the saddle-a simple blanket with light padding and a surcingle appeared about 800 BC. The earliest foot support was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 BC.[2] Later, a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid by a nomadic group known as the Sarmatians.[3]



Depiction of a Kushan divinity using an early platform-style stirrup, circa 150 CE. British Museum.The invention of the solid saddle tree allowed development of the true stirrup as it is known today.[4] Without a solid tree, the rider's weight in the stirrups creates abnormal pressure points and make the horse's back sore. [5] Modern researchers have done thermography studies on "treeless" and flexible tree saddle designs have found that there is considerable friction across the center line of a horse's back.[6]

In Asia, early solid-treed saddles were made of felt that covered a wooden frame.[7] These designs date to approximately 200 BC.[8] One of the earliest solid-treed saddles in the west was first used by the Romans as early as the first century BC,[9] but this design also did not have stirrups.[8] The first dependable representation of a rider with paired stirrups was found in China in a Jin Dynasty tomb of about A.D. 322.[10][11][12] The stirrup appeared to be in widespread use across China by 477 AD.[13]

See also: saddle
Stirrups reached Sweden in the 6th century, leading to the establishment of mounted Thegns during the Swedish Vendel Age. Rich graves from this period held the remains and regalia of mounted elite warriors, which include stirrups.[14] The importance of the horse during this time is reflected in the later Norse sagas, where the 6th century Swedish king Adils is said to have been a great lover of horses and to have had the best horses of his days. Interestingly, all accounts of this king's warfare describe him as fighting on horseback, although the later Vikings rarely did so. A 6th century writer, Jordanes, claimed that the Swedes had the best horses beside the Thuringians, reflecting the importance of the horse during this time.

By the 7th century, primarily due to invaders from Central Asia, such as the Avars, stirrups spread across Asia to Europe.[15] By the 8th century, they appear to have been adopted by the Europeans.[16] Among other advantages, stirrups provided greater balance and support to the rider, which allowed the knight to use a sword more efficiently without falling, especially against infantry adversaries. Contrary to common image, stirrups do not enable the horseman to use lance more effectively (cataphracts had used lances since antiquity), but a cantled saddle does.[17]

Charles Martel recognized the military potentialities of the stirrup,and distributed seized lands to his retainers on condition that they serve him by fighting in the new manner.[18] Later, Charlemagne ordered his poorer vassals to pool their resources and provide a mounted and armed knight, though the system proved unworkable, and instead the system of distributing land to vassals based on a knight's service was developed.[10]


[edit]The Great Stirrup Controversy
Main article: The Great Stirrup Controversy
The introduction of the stirrup not only made the mounted warrior supreme in medieval warfare, but may have initiated complex and far-reaching social and cultural changes in Europe. Some scholars credit this use of the stirrup to the birth of feudalism and its subsequent spread into Northern Italy, Spain, Germany and later into the Slavic territories. One theory suggested that the rising feudal class structure of the European Middle Ages derived ultimately from the use of stirrups: "Few inventions have been so simple as the stirrup, but few have had so catalytic an influence on history. The requirements of the new mode of warfare which it made possible found expression in a new form of western European society dominated by an aristocracy of warriors endowed with land so that they might fight in a new and highly specialized way."[19] Most scholars, however, dispute this assertion, suggesting that stirrups may provide little advantage in shock warfare, but are useful primarily in allowing a rider to lean farther to the left and right on the saddle while fighting, and simply reduce the risk of falling off. Therefore, it is argued, they are not the reason for the switch from infantry to cavalry in Medieval militaries, nor the reason for the emergence of Feudalism.[20]


[edit]Stirrup leathers
Because a rider must be able to move his or her legs while riding, stirrups cannot be attached on the body of the saddle itself, but rather must be attached in a manner that allows the rider's leg a full range of motion. Therefore, stirrups are attached to a saddle by means of adjustable straps, called stirrup leathers. Depending on the design of a saddle, stirrup leathers may be attached to a "stirrup bar," a small forged steel bar embedded into the saddle tree, or may be wrapped around the bars of the tree itself. Because different riders are of different heights, and stirrups also may need to be adjusted up or down to accommodate different types of activity, stirrups leathers have buckles and holes that allow length to be adjusted.

On an English saddle, leathers are quite thin, only about one inch wide. On a western saddle, they are very heavy, three to four inches wide on the side closest to the horse, and even wider, expanded into a decorative "fender" on the outside (which also protects the rider's legs from the sweat of the horse). Stirrup leathers on other saddle designs fall in between the extremes represented by the English and western saddles.

Stirrup leathers are usually manufactured so that the smooth side of the leather faces the wearing surface, as the smooth side wears less quickly than the rough side. There are also modern alternatives to leather, including nylon, plastic covered nylon (biotane being one example) or leather over a nylon reinforced core. These new "leathers" may last longer and also resist stretching. On the other hand, they may chafe and rub the leg, and poorly-made products may break more easily than leather.

As the rider's whole weight must be carried at one side when mounting, on an English saddle, one stirrup leather often becomes stretched longer than the other, usually the left one, because most mounting occurs on that side. While a simple adjustment of the leather can even up the stirrups, to preserve the integrity and longevity of the leathers, they should be switched to the opposite sides from time to time. On a western saddle, with a heavier, permanently installed fender and stirrup leather that cannot be switched, stretching is slower and less extreme, though it also occurs in this type of saddle. Any uneveness in the leathers can be managed by adjusting the stirrup length, and if necessary, by adding extra holes in the leathers to allow them to be buckled at an intermediate point between the existing prepunched holes provided by the saddle manufacturer.


[edit]Adjustment and uses of stirrups


The long stirrups of the dressage rider allow for a long leg, thus giving the greatest amount of communication

The short stirrups of a jockey allow the rider to stay over the galloping horse's center of balance and allow the horse to reach the maximum possible speedThere are two basic methods of using stirrups, a shorter stirrup to allow more mobility and a longer stirrup to allow greater control. The stirrup itself is similar, but the length of the stirrup leather is different. In each case, the stirrup length allows the rider to remain over the center of balance of the horse for the average speed characteristic of the discipline; the faster the horse travels, the more forward the rider must be positioned, and hence the shorter the stirrup.

Long stirrups allow the rider to ride with a long leg, with the knee relaxed and only slightly bent, allowing a deep and stable seat in the saddle. When riding a long stirrup, the rider has excellent control of the horse and the greatest ability to feel and communicate with the horse via the riding aids. This provides a sturdy base for activities where precision is required or when the rider is at risk of being unseated. For both reasons, long stirrups were thus the choice of heavy cavalry such as the medieval knights, who fought in close quarters and used weapons such as the lance and long, heavy swords. Historically, this type of stirrup adjustment and the riding seat it produced was called la brida. Today it is the choice for dressage and many types of western riders.

Shorter stirrups require a rider to keep the knees bent at a greater angle. When riding in a short stirrup, the rider has the ability to partially stand up and get the seat clear of the saddle. This allows more mobility than a longer stirrup would, but at the cost of having less feel of the horse and less security. It is a position designed to help the horse achieve greater speed, and also allows the rider greater physical mobility in the saddle. When riding with short stirrups, the rider often adopts what is known as a forward seat, thus inhibiting the horse's balance and athletic maneuverings as little as possible. In the past, this style was preferred by light cavalry. These fighters required speed and needed the flexibility to turn their own bodies in any direction to use light weapons such as the bow, javelin, short swords, and later, the rifle and pistol. The horsemen of Central Asia, such as the Mongols, used this type of stirrup, as did the islamic Bedouin and Moors of the Middle East and North Africa. Historically, this type of stirrup adjustment and the seat it produced was called la jineta. Modern Jockeys, eventers, and show jumping riders use this type of stirrup, as do some cowboys when performing certain jobs that require a forward position to allow agility of horse and rider, such as calf roping

While an inexperienced rider may feel more secure with a slightly too-short stirrup, in reality, it is actually easier to be thrown from the horse because the rider's legs act as a stabilizing agent, much in the same way the long pole of a tightrope walker balances the acrobat. Obviously, a stirrup leather so long that a rider cannot reach it is useless, and a stirrup length that does not allow a rider with a properly positioned leg to keep the heel lower than the toe is also easily lost. However, shortening the stirrup until the rider feels they will not lose the stirrup is counterproductive; the goal of correct equestrianism is to make maximum use of the leg. Lengthening the leg creates a more secure seat, while shortening the stirrup is done only to accommodate the needs of the horse to perform athletic movement. Thus correct stirrup length creates a balance between control and mobility that fits the discipline performed.

There are a spectrum of stirrup lengths, which the rider may chose depending on the purpose. For example, in dressage, the longest possible stirrup length is used in order for the rider to have complete control over every nuance of the horse's movement. Likewise, a very long stirrup is used in the western sport of cutting, where, though the rider relinquishes control to the horse, requires maximum security to stay in the saddle during the rapid stops, turns and bursts of speed the horse uses when maneuvering cattle. For a comfortable ride over long hours at slow speeds, the long stirrup is also preferred by trail riders.

Riders jumping low fences may wish for an intermediate length stirrup that can allow the horse some freedom of movement, while supporting the rider over the fence, and still providing enough leg for excellent communication. A rider travelling rapidly cross-country, over varying terrain while fox hunting or endurance riding, will also have an intermediate stirrup, needing to strike a compromise between mobility for the horse and the need of the rider to not be unseated. In the western rodeo sport of calf roping, a moderately short stirrup is also required to help the horse to sprint quickly from the box, and to allow the cowboy the freedom to swing a lariat.

A show jumping rider will have a shorter stirrup than other English riders, in order to maximize the jumping effort of the horse. However, the rider also has the challenge of staying on over the fence and controlling the horse through rapid changes of pace and direction, so still needs some length of leg for stability.

Jockeys must be completely off their horse's backs, balanced well forward over the withers, to allow their mount optimum speed in a long, galloping stride. Therefore they have the shortest possible stirrup length. The cost for maximum speed is minimum control and security. Jockeys must be in superb muscular condition and possess outstanding balance; they cannot achieve the finesse of leg aids needed in other equestrian sports, and must rely primarily on the use of their seat and a crop for speed, and on their arm strength for directional control or slowing down. Their relative lack of control is clearly demonstrated by the use of "pony" horses to lead the race horse and jockey to the track, the use of assistants at the starting gate to load the horses, and the availability of outriders (all with much longer stirrups) to assist the jockey at the end of a race or in the event of an accident. If the horse does anything but run in essentially a straight line with long gradual curves, or if anything goes seriously wrong, jockeys can easily be thrown, as their high rate of injury so amply illustrates.

See also: Horses in warfare and Equestrianism

[edit]Weaknesses in design
The stirrup design does have two inherent design flaws. The first is a safety issue: even with a properly fitted stirrup, there are several ways in which the rider's foot can be trapped and cause the rider to be dragged in the event of a fall from the horse. The second is the potential negative impact on the health of the human foot.

One reason riders can become hung up is due to improper stirrup sizing. If the stirrup is too large, the foot can go through the stirrup opening and be caught. If the stirrup is too small, the foot can become trapped more easily as the foot cannot free itself. (see Fitting the stirrup, below). Proper stirrup placement, on the ball of the foot, instead of jammed "home" clear up to the arch, also lowers the risk of a rider being dragged.

Modern English saddles are designed with a stirrup bar that allows the stirrup leathers to fall from the saddle if the rider starts to be dragged. Some English stirrups are also designed with breakaway sides or non-standard designs intended to make it easier for the foot to come out of the stirrup when necessary.

Western saddles have significantly wider stirrups, particularly at the tread, to minimize this risk. Sometimes, they are equipped with tapaderos, leather covers over the toe that close each stirrup from the front. A tapadero prevents the rider's boot from slipping through and also prevents brush encountered while working cattle on the open range from poking through the stirrup, injuring or impeding the horse or rider. However, the tapedero is not common in modern times and is not allowed in most show competition.

The second design flaw of the stirrup affects the health of the human foot. The rider's whole weight is at times supported entirely by the stirrups. During these periods, excessive pressure can be exerted on the Peroneus Tertius tendon which runs along the lateral side of the foot. In extreme cases, stirrups have been found to cause damage to the tuberosity of the 5th metatarsal bone. Over long periods of extreme use, this can cause various medical conditions ranging from simple impaired walking to severe pronation or supination of the foot. Normal riders, however, generally have no related problems, even over a lifetime of riding. Disciplines that require long hours in the saddle, such as endurance riding and some types of western riding on a working ranch, often use a wider stirrup to provide more support to the foot.

For the comfort of the horse, all stirrups require that the saddle itself be properly designed. The solid tree of the saddle distributes the weight of the rider over a greater surface area of the horse's back, reducing pressure on any one area. If a saddle is made without a solid tree, without careful engineering, the rider's weight in the stirrups and leathers can create pressure points on the horse's back and lead to soreness. This is especially noticeable with inexpensive bareback pads that add stirrups by means of a strap across the horse's back with a stirrup at each end.


[edit]Riding boots
Main article: riding boot
The risk of being dragged by a foot caught in the stirrup spawned an adaptation in riding footwear: Riding boots have a raised heel of at least a half-inch, and in special designs like the western cowboy boot, often more. This "ridge" created by the raised heel will usually catch on the bottom of the stirrup, preventing the foot from slipping through the stirrup and dragging the rider. Riding boots also have a smooth sole that can easily slide in and out of the stirrup.

Footwear such as a tennis shoe or a hiking boot is considered inappropriate for riding both because the shoe has little or no raised heel and because the heavy tread that provides traction for athletic endeavors can cause the foot to catch in the stirrup and become trapped. Modern synthetic materials have allowed the design of riding boots that will slide from a stirrup but are also comfortable for walking, with a sole using varying hard and soft materials that provides reasonable traction with a minimal amount of raised tread.


[edit]Modern Stirrups
The modern stirrup can be made from a variety of materials including metals, wood and certain synthetics. Stirrups with a wider tread tend to be more comfortable and a rider is less likely to become hung up in the event of a fall. Thinner stirrups provide greater security. Though the underlying design of a flat bottom and curved top have not significantly changed from the earliest artifacts, some modifications have made the stirrup safer and more comfortable.

One of the most dangerous problems with the stirrup is the fact that the rider can get a boot stuck in it in the event of a fall, which would result in the person being dragged. Several different designs have been developed to allow the stirrup to break away, fall off or easily release the foot if the rider falls. Other modern stirrup designs have changed the angle or orientation of the tread, either permanently or by added hinges, supposedly to help the rider flex the ankle and get weight into the heels. Other experimental improvements have included a swivel feature at the top of the leather to keep the stirrup turned out to face the rider's foot.


[edit]English-style stirrups


Standard modern stirrupsStirrups used on English saddles are usually made of metal. Though called "irons," they are no longer made of iron, as a rule, but instead stainless steel is the metal of choice, due to its strength, though when weight is an issue, such as for a jockey, they may also be made of aluminum. Inexpensive stirrups may be made of nickel, which can easily bend or break and should be avoided. Stirrups may also be made of synthetic materials and various metallic alloys. There are many variations on the standard stirrup design, most claiming to either be safer in the event of a fall or to make it easier for a rider to maintain a proper foot and leg position.

Some variations include:

Standard iron: The most common stirrup iron, consisting of a tread, with two branches, and an eye at the top for the leather to run through.
Bent-leg Stirrups: Safety stirrups on which the outside branch is bent, rather than straight, to help the foot to release in the event of a fall.
Safety Stirrups, also called Peacock Stirrups: The outer branch of these stirrups are composed of a strong, thick rubber band and a leather loop, which will detach with sufficient pressure, freeing the foot. However, there are several problems with these stirrups, such as the fact that the rubber band eventually wears thin and may unexpectedly break, the rubber band may also come off completely, whether it's worn out or not and the tread of the stirrup is only supported by the inside stirrup bar, and so the tread often bends. The hook that supports the rubber band may injure an inexperienced rider during a dismount, especially if the rubber band has fallen off, making the peacock stirrup more trouble then it's possible safety benefits.
Side-saddle stirrups: usually have a slightly larger eye to accommodate the thicker stirrup leather on a sidesaddle.
Other designs: have joints or hinges in the branches of the stirrups to allow for them to flex. These are said to be good for riders with joint pain, though one model has recently been recalled due to a tendency for the hinges to break.[21] Yet another design has an adjustable eye at the top that allows the rider to choose either a 45 degree angle, a 90 degree angle or a traditional angle for the stirrup to lay against the horse's side.

[edit]Western-style stirrups


A Western saddle has wide stirrups and heavy stirrup leathersThe stirrup of a western saddle is more difficult to remove or replace than the English stirrup and therefore, unless damaged, the same stirrups usually are kept on for the life of the saddle itself. The tread is mostly flat, but may be curved at the sides to some degree. The branches are wide at the bottom and narrow at the top, where they are joined by a heavy dowel of wood, or rod of metal. The stirrup leather loops under the rod and a "keeper," a strap with a buckle that wraps around the front and back of the stirrup leather, keeps the stirrup in place. Many western stirrups are made of leather-covered wood, others of steel, aluminum, or even very strong fiber-reinforced plastic.

Western stirrups are designed to parallel the use intended by the design of the saddle itself; a trail riding saddle will have a wide, comfortable stirrup, a saddle for saddle bronc riding will have a narrow tread, to avoid being easily lost by the rider. A saddle for barrel racing or reining will have stirrups of a medium width, narrow enough to not be lost when a horse is moving at high speed, but with enough width to remain comfortable for a few hours. Stirrups on a saddle intended for western pleasure may be highly ornamented with silver. Stirrups on saddles used by people who use horses for hunting game in the forest are sometimes made of blaze orange for visibility to other hunters, and, because much big game hunting in the American West takes place late in the year when it is very cold, some "winter boot" designs are deliberately made extra large with an especially smooth bottom so that a person can wear heavy winter boots with a raised tread without as much risk of getting them caught up in the stirrup.


[edit]Fitting the Stirrup
It is very important that the stirrup be the correct width for the boot. A stirrup that is too narrow will increase the chance that the boot will get caught in it (which would be very dangerous should the rider fall), and a too-wide stirrup makes it harder for a rider to keep it under the foot, and presents some risk that the foot might slip all the way through. It is generally suggested that the stirrup be no more than 1 inch larger than the widest part of the sole of the rider's boots.

Additionally, the rider's boot should have a heel (both English and Western-style riders).


[edit]Placement of the Stirrup on the Foot


The stirrup "home" on a polo player, providing security, but little flexibility in the ankle.In general, the stirrup is placed on the ball of the foot, allowing the rider to let his weight flow down the back of the leg into the heel by way of the flexible ankle. This provides the rider with the support of the stirrup while still allowing for him to easily absorb the shock of the horse's motion. If the stirrup is too far forward, on the toes, the rider risks losing if he pushes with too much pressure (forcing it off the foot) or too little (allowing it to simply slide off).

Some riders ride with the stirrup more "home," or shoved toward the heel. This is seen most often in sports such as polo and eventing, where the speed and sudden changes of direction of the former, and the great change in terrain and solid fences of the latter, make the rider more likely to be jarred loose from the saddle and increases the risk of losing a stirrup. However, this placement actually puts the stirrup on the arch of the foot, in a weaker position that leads to tension in the leg, stiffness in the knee and decreases the flexibility of the ankle, and therefore the shock-absorbing ability of the rider; paradoxically increasing the risk of a fall. Additionally, it increases the chance that the rider's foot will become stuck in the stirrup during a fall, a very dangerous situation. This placement is often counterproductive and should not be used if it is not an absolute necessity. The "home" position has some value in saddle bronc riding, as a lost stirrup will almost inevitably result in the rider being thrown from the bucking horse, but because riders are thrown from the horse at a high rate even under normal circumstances, this event also has a high rate of riders being hung up in their stirrups and injured in the process.

维基百科上关于马镫的条目

比你们自己瞎猜测要权威多了

分两个情况：马镫和金属马镫。马镫最早的出现已经不可考，最早的是单马镫，供上马用；最早的双脚马镫的证据是印度的瓶画；而最早的金属马镫的证据是中国的南北朝时期实物。
    马鞍最早是软垫，至于高桥马鞍公元前6世纪开始出现；公元前1世纪已经很普遍。
    没有高桥马鞍和马镫，并不妨碍重骑兵和冲击骑兵的出现。最早的突击骑兵在公元前6世纪开始出现。至于马其顿和帕提亚之类的著名强骑的故事我就不重复了。

话说猛子大大被谁扣了这么多分?

很神秘啊，我昨天就想问来着。。。

论坛搜索要扣积分，加精华也会增加99积分，原来属于版主组的时候积分即使到负数也不会显示出来。

本版改版后撤消版主和部分精华帖，所以积分变负数。

引用:

原帖由 [LONG]drake 于 2007-6-26 12:48 AM 发表
趾蹬和马镫似乎不同吧？灞河汉代水上遗址出土铜马镫似乎是趾镫

有区别么？